Tag: studying

operationpsych:

I believe it is safe to say that much of the studyblr community has heard of or used Cornell notes at some point in time.  However, few likely realize the very interesting ways in which this particular type of note-taking method applies various elements of cognitive psychology.  Below are examples of what those elements are.

What are Cornell notes?

Cornell notes are a type of note-taking system created by Walter Pauk.  Effective use of Cornell notes apply the principles of the “five r’s” including: 

Record: the process of writing notes during classes/lectures

Reduce: following lectures, the resulting summarization of information contained within the initial set of notes; creation of the “cue-column”

Recite: usage of the cue column as a testing tool, where the notes are covered, and the questions in the cue column are answered in the student’s own words

Reflect: considering how the information contained within the notes applies to your own life or other concepts that you know already

Review: revising/studying from the notes a little bit each day (10 minutes/day generally)

Cornell
notes are based upon creating three distinct sections within your class
notes.  

The largest section of the page
encompasses the notes taken on the material that is being learned.  

In the left margin is the cue section, where
questions pertaining to the information within the notes section is
recorded.  The cue section of Cornell notes requires that students create questions pertaining to the information contained in their notes that will serve as a retrieval cue for the answers that are necessitated by the question.  The formation of questions within the cue column allows for a test to be constructed for the student to study from, and allows for repeated testing of the important concepts that need to be remembered.

The bottom third of the page
is reserved for a summary of all of the material written down.  

How do Cornell notes apply cognitive psychology?

Before explaining how the note-taking method applies cognitive psychology, it is important to know the following terms:

Testing effect: 

the
concept where repeated testing of material following the initial learning or
study period improves memory for the information, as well as enhances retrieval
for said information.

Transfer-appropriate processing: 

details
that effective retrieval depends on the level and type of processing that
incurred during encoding.  When encoding
conditions and retrieval cues align, memory tends to be better than in
situations where there is a mismatch between encoding and retrieval contexts. 

In
relation to the testing effect, if information will need to be retrieved in the
context of a test, then encoding should closely resemble the testing conditions
in order for the transfer of memory to be appropriate.  This operation is representative of the
encoding specificity principle (memory is improved when information available at encoding is also available at retrieval). 

Much of the time, students attempt to use maintenance rehearsal as a means of studying, in which passive engagement with information is used to study for exams.  However, 

the
repetition of studying the material is only useful when information is
retrieved after a short period of time, but does not enhance retention
following the initial retrieval period.  In other words, cramming for tests does not allow for information to be remembered long-term, and may not help in the short-term either.

The testing effect requires that repeated testing or questions surrounding the information intended to be learned is employed.

The
retention of information is improved when implementing repeated testing,
and information is remembered over a longer period of time than when simple
repeated study of the material is utilized.  When
the testing effect is evident, material is remembered better, forgotten less,
and is retained for a longer period of time.  (Which is exactly what students should aim to do!)

Once
questions are devised within the Cornell notes system, the “notes” section
containing the answers can easily be covered so that the cue column initiates a
memory test of the information on the page, and thus incorporates the testing
effect.  

The questions created should be
representative of not only the material, but the perceived level of involvement
dictated by the instructor who will be creating the real exam.  If deeper-level questions will be present on
the exam (i.e. open-ended or application questions), then the questions created
on the Cornell notes should reflect that so that deeper processing can occur,
and the information can be better transferred. 

However, if an exam requires that more shallow processing be applied
(for example, multiple choice questions pertaining to strict vocabulary
definitions), then the cue column can reflect that as well.  (Essentially, try to make the questions or main ideas in the cue column reflect what and how your instructor will ask questions on an exam; try not to write “what is the meaning of life?” when you are going to be asked “explain the relationship between ______ and ______”.  For mathematics/engineering or other more math-based subjects, use the cue column for equations or concepts as well.)

The goal of Cornell notes is that the cue
column serves as a memory test for the information encompassed within the
notes.  When used on a regular basis
through repeated exposure to the questions within the cue column, the testing
effect comes to fruition.  Rather than
rote memorization or maintenance rehearsal, Cornell notes allow students to
formulate their own questions and test themselves on a regular basis over the information.  

When exam time comes, the context of encoding
(i.e. repeated questions that test the student’s comprehension of the topic)
will be replicated through the actual exam, and retrieval of the information
will be improved due to the superior transfer of information and matched
contexts.  This is a process that any
student can incorporate to be better prepared for exams
through improved study methods that emphasize proper encoding and retrieval.

Does this mean I have to use Cornell notes?

Absolutely not!  Studying is an individual process, and whatever allows you to learn information best should be what you use.  I created this guide simply to shed some light on why Cornell notes are effective in terms of memory encoding/retrieval.

Note Taking Systems

kimtented:

The Cornell Method

The Cornell method provides a systematic format for condensing and organizing notes without laborious recopying. After writing the notes in the main space, use the left-hand space to label each idea and detail with a key word or “cue.”

Method

Rule your paper with a 2 ½ inch margin on the left leaving a six-inch area on the right in which to make notes. During class, take down information in the six-inch area. When the instructor moves to a new point, skip a few lines. After class, complete phrases and sentences as much as possible. For every significant bit of information, write a cue in the left margin. To review, cover your notes with a card, leaving the cues exposed. Say the cue out loud, then say as much as you can of the material underneath the card. When you have said as much as you can, move the card and see if what you said matches what is written. If you can say it, you know it.

Advantages

Organized and systematic for recording and reviewing notes. Easy format for pulling out major concept and ideas. Simple and efficient. Saves time and effort. “Do-it-right-in-the-first-place” system.

Disadvantages

None

When to Use

In any lecture situation.

The Outlining Method

Dash or indented outlining is usually best except for some science classes such as physics or math.

  1. The information which is most general begins at the left with each more specific group of facts indented with spaces to the right.
  2. The relationships between the different parts is carried out through indenting.
  3. No numbers, letters, or Roman numerals are needed.

Method

Listening and then write in points in an organized pattern based on space indention. Place major points farthest to the left. Indent each more specific point to the right. Levels of importance will be indicated by distance away from the major point. Indention can be as simple as or as complex as labeling the indentations with Roman numerals or decimals. Markings are not necessary as space relationships will indicate the major/minor points.

Advantages

Well-organized system if done right. Outlining records content as well as relationships. It also reduces editing and is easy to review by turning main points into questions.

Disadvantages

Requires more thought in class for accurate organization. This system may not show relationships by sequence when needed. It doesn’t lend to diversity of a review attach for maximum learning and question application. This system cannot be used if the lecture is too fast.

When to Use

The outline format can be used if the lecture is presented in outline organization. This may be either deductive (regular outline) or inductive (reverse outline where minor points start building to a major point). Use this format when there is enough time in the lecture to think about and make organization decisions when they are needed. This format can be most effective when your note taking skills are super sharp and you can handle the outlining regardless of the note taking situation.

Example:

  • Extrasensory perception
    • definition: means of perceiving without use of sense organs.

      • three kinds

        • telepathy: sending messages
        • clairvoyance: forecasting the future
        • psychokinesis: perceiving events external to situation
      • current status
        • no current research to support or refute
        • few psychologists say impossible
        • door open to future

The Mapping Method

Mapping is a method that uses comprehension/concentration skills and evolves in a note taking form which relates each fact or idea to every other fact or idea. Mapping is a graphic representation of the content of a lecture. It is a method that maximizes active participation, affords immediate knowledge as to its understanding, and emphasizes critical thinking.

Advantages

This format helps you to visually track your lecture regardless of conditions. Little thinking is needed and relationships can easily be seen. It is also easy to edit your notes by adding numbers, marks, and color coding. Review will call for you to restructure thought processes which will force you to check understanding. Review by covering lines for memory drill and relationships. Main points can be written on flash or note cards and pieced together into a table or larger structure at a later date.

Disadvantages

You may not hear changes in content from major points to facts.

When to Use

Use when the lecture content is heavy and well-organized. May also be used effectively when you have a guest lecturer and have no idea how the lecture is going to be presented.

Example:

The Charting Method

If the lecture format is distinct (such as chronological), you may set up your paper by drawing columns and labeling appropriate headings in a table.

Method

Determine the categories to be covered in the lecture. Set up your paper in advance by columns headed by these categories. As you listen to the lecture, record information (words, phrases, main ideas, etc.) into the appropriate category.

Advantages

Helps you track conversation and dialogues where you would normally be confused and lose out on relevant content. Reduces amount of writing necessary. Provides easy review mechanism for both memorization of facts and study of comparisons and relationships.

Disadvantages

Few disadvantages except learning how to use the system and locating the appropriate categories. You must be able to understand what’s happening in the lecture

When to Use

Test will focus on both facts and relationships. Content is heavy and presented fast. You want to reduce the amount of time you spend editing and reviewing at test time. You want to get an overview of the whole course on one big paper sequence.

Example:

The Sentence Method

Method

Write every new thought, fact or topic on a separate line, numbering as you progress.

Advantages

Slightly more organized than the paragraph. Gets more or all of the information. Thinking to tract content is still limited.

Disadvantages

Can’t determine major/minor points from the numbered sequence. Difficult to edit without having to rewrite by clustering points which are related. Difficult to review unless editing cleans up relationship.

When to Use

Use when the lecture is somewhat organized, but heavy with content which comes fast. You can hear the different points, but you don’t know how they fit together. The instructor tends to present in point fashion, but not in grouping such as “three related points.”

Three Examples:

Example 1:

A revolution is any occurrence that affects other aspects of life, such as economic life, social life, and so forth. Therefore revolutions cause change. (See page 29 to 30 in your text about this.)

Sample Notes:

Revolution – occurrence that affects other aspects of life: e.g., econ., socl., etc. C.f. text, pp. 29-30

Example 2:

Melville did not try to represent life as it really was. The language of Ahab, Starbuck, and Ishmael, for instance, was not that of real life.

Sample Notes:

Mel didn’t repr. life as was; e.g., lang. of Ahab, etc. not of real life.

Example 3:

At first, Freud tried conventional, physical methods of treatment such as giving baths, massages, rest cures, and similar aids. But when these failed, he tried techniques of hypnosis that he had seen used by Jean-Martin Charcot. Finally, he borrowed an idea from Jean Breuer and used direct verbal communication to get an unhypnotized patient to reveal unconscious thoughts.

Sample Notes:

Freud 1st – used phys. trtment; e.g., baths, etc. This fld. 2nd – used hypnosis (fr. Charcot) Finally – used dirct vrb. commun. (fr. Breuer) – got unhynop, patnt to reveal uncons. thoughts.